Emperor Hadrian: Architect of Empire, Guardian of Borders

Updated On: February 05, 2024 by   Noha Basiouny

In the vast annals of Roman history, one name stands out as a testament to the zenith of imperial achievement and cultural legacy—Emperor Hadrian.

Emperor Hadrian’s reign was filled with both triumphs and difficulties but generally marked a significant period of transformation for the Roman Empire. He left a legacy characterised by a mix of military achievements, architectural feats, and intellectual pursuits that cemented his reputation as a multifaceted leader. He was a warrior who valued intellect and a leader who sought to reform the traditional structures of his society.

In this article, we will delve deeply into the life and legacy of this intriguing ruler, examining his accomplishments, challenges, and enduring impact on the Roman Empire, an intricate tapestry of military might, cultural patronage, and administrative acumen converged to define an era that echoes through the corridors of history.

So, grab your double espresso, or a large cappuccino if you may, and let’s hop into it.

Emperor Hadrian

Emperor Hadrian, reigning from 117 to 138 CE, is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman emperors. Known for his military prowess, administrative skills, and cultural contributions, Hadrian’s reign is often considered a period of stability and prosperity for the Roman Empire.

As we will see more comprehensively, Hadrian implemented important reforms, fortified the empire’s borders, and undertook extensive architectural projects. He was also known for his intellectual pursuits, fostering a cultural renaissance during his rule. His ability to balance military strength with diplomacy, coupled with his interest in philosophy and the arts, has solidified his legacy as one of Rome’s most effective and enlightened leaders.

So, how did this man rise to power? Let’s find out.

Early Years

Publius Aelius Hadrianus, or Hadrian for short, was born on 24 January 76 CE in the Roman city of Italica, which was located in the province of Hispania Baetica, modern-day Spain. Hadrian’s lineage was marked by a mix of Roman and provincial heritage. His family had settled in Hispania during the Roman Republic, and Hadrian’s father, also named Hadrian, held a senatorial rank. 

Despite being born in a provincial setting, Hadrian received an education befitting a member of the Roman elite. His early years were influenced by the cultural and political ambience of Rome, as his family ensured he received a comprehensive knowledge of literature, philosophy, and arts. As a young man, Hadrian’s intellect and curiosity were evident, and he developed a keen interest in various intellectual pursuits.

At the age of ten, Hadrian’s parents died, so he was taken under the guardianship of his cousin Trajan, who would later become one of the most successful and celebrated Roman emperors. The relationship between Hadrian and Trajan shaped Hadrian’s early military career as the latter recognised Hadrian’s potential and took him under his wing, providing opportunities for military service and political advancement.

Trajan placed huge significance on Hadrian’s education. This typically included instruction in philosophy, rhetoric, and Greek literature, which Hadrian was particularly keen on learning. This is besides the military training that was tailored to prepare him for future responsibilities.

Public Service

Hadrian’s military career officially started when he joined the Roman army as a young man. He initially served as a military tribune in various provinces, gaining practical experience and earning the respect of his peers. His early postings included service in lower-ranking positions, and he gradually rose through the ranks due to his abilities and competence as a military leader.

In 96 CE, the Roman emperor Nerva died and Trajan, whom the former appointed as his heir, ascended to the throne. Trajan was an accomplished military leader, and once he became the emperor, he set his mind on expanding the Roman Empire, which he did through conquests in the Dacian Wars (101–102 AD and 105–106 AD) against the Dacian king Decebalus.

Hadrian’s military prowess became particularly evident during these two wars, where he gained recognition and earned valuable experience that honed his skills in leadership and warfare. Such skills facilitated Hadrian’s rise to the consulship for the first time in 108 CE. This position was typically held for one year and was considered a prestigious and influential role in the Roman Empire.

During Trajan’s reign, Hadrian held various important positions, both militarily and administratively, solidifying his reputation as a competent and reliable figure. He held the consulship for the second time in 111 CE, a role that allowed him to have a direct influence on Roman politics and governance. Hadrian held this position two more times in the years that followed.

The influence of Trajan, coupled with Hadrian’s own abilities, propelled him into the political limelight, eventually leading to his adoption by Trajan as his successor. This precisely happened in 117 CE while Trajan was on a campaign in the East. He chose Hadrian as his successor, yet shortly after that, he died, and Hadrian ascended to the throne.

Reign

Hadrian was known for his intellectual curiosity and philosophical interests. His personal values were influenced by Stoicism, and they shaped his approach to leadership, which was quite distinct, as we will see in a bit. He was also committed to justice, fairness, and the well-being of his subjects.

All of this set Hadrian apart as a thoughtful and principled ruler who later became one of the Five Good Emperors—Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.

Although there were no major conflicts between them, Hadrian took a different, more cautious approach to governing compared to Trajan. While Trajan focused on expanding the Roman Empire through conquests, Hadrian understood the limitations of continuous expansion and rather adopted a defensive strategy, focused on consolidating and securing the existing borders of the empire and improving Rome’s existing territories.

This change in strategy allowed Hadrian to strengthen the empire from within and promote stability throughout its borders.

Hadrian also implemented administrative reforms to enhance the efficiency and stability of the Roman Empire. He paid careful attention to the provincial administration, aiming to maintain law and order. His meticulous governance involved addressing issues of corruption and ensuring the fair treatment of subjects. His efforts in streamlining bureaucracy contributed to a more organised and effective imperial administration.

Additionally, Hadrian was known for his extensive travels throughout the empire, engaging with local populations, and addressing various issues. His diplomatic efforts often focused on improving relations with provinces and maintaining stability.

Moreover, Hadrian was a passionate patron of the arts and architecture. Under his rule, iconic structures were constructed, with the Pantheon in Rome being a prime example. Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli is another testament to his architectural vision, showcasing a blend of different styles and innovations—we will look more into these in a bit.

Coupled with his architectural activity, Hadrian supported the flourishing of intellectual and cultural pursuits during his reign. This period was known as the “Second Sophistic” and saw a revival of Greek literature and culture, which Hadrian himself was fond of. Hadrian’s patronage of poets, philosophers, and artists contributed to a renaissance in the arts, leaving a long-lasting impact on the cultural landscape of the Roman Empire.

Architecture Activity

As we just mentioned, Hadrian demonstrated a keen interest in the arts and culture, and his architectural endeavours were characterised by an ambitious and diverse range of architectural projects that precisely reflected a fusion of Greek and Roman influences.

Hadrian’s Wall

Notable among his constructions is the iconic Hadrian’s Wall, a defensive fortification built in Northern England to secure the northern frontier of the Roman province of Britannia and protect it from potential invasions by Celtic and Pictish tribes.

As part of Hadrian’s defensive strategy, the wall was completed in 128 CE and stretched from the banks of the River Tyne near the east coast to the Solway Firth on the west coast of England. It was a stone structure, approximately 117 kilometres long, three metres wide, and up to 4.5 metres tall.

At various points along the wall, there were forts, milecastles, and turrets for additional defence and surveillance. Roman soldiers manned the wall, with numerous forts and other installations providing a continuous military presence. Patrols were conducted to deter potential threats and maintain order in the region.

Hadrian’s Wall not only served a practical defensive purpose but also symbolised Roman power and authority. Yet, as the Roman Empire faced various challenges by the end of the fourth century, Roman legions withdrew from Britain, and Hadrian’s Wall lost its military significance and was eventually abandoned. Today, the remains of Hadrian’s Wall are a UNESCO World Heritage Site, attracting visitors interested in Roman history and archaeology.

The Pantheon

The Pantheon in Rome is another marvel of engineering and one of the most well-preserved and iconic ancient buildings that Hadiran commissioned. Completed around 125 CE, the Pantheon has served various purposes throughout its history, but its original function is thought to have been as a temple specially dedicated to all the gods of ancient Rome.

The most striking architectural feature of the Pantheon is its massive unreinforced concrete dome. It has an oculus, or an opening, at its centre, allowing natural light and rain to enter the building. The cylindrical drum of the building supports the dome and features a series of niches and rectangular alcoves. 

The dome covers the main space of the Pantheon, which is a rotunda. The use of various materials, including marble, bronze, and coloured stone, contributes to its opulence. The Pantheon is also fronted by a large portico with a triangular pediment supported by a row of granite Corinthian columns. This entrance provides a grand and imposing facade.

The Pantheon has witnessed various transformations over the centuries. It was converted into a Christian church, known as Santa Maria ad Martyres, in the seventh century, helping to preserve its structure. Today, the Pantheon is a famous tourist attraction, attracting visitors from around the world who come to marvel at its architectural splendour and historical significance.

Other Structures 

Hadrian left his mark on the cityscape with the construction or completion of many other structures that included:

1. Trajan’s Forum (Rome): Although initiated by Emperor Trajan, Hadrian played a role in the completion of Trajan’s Forum. This is a vast complex of buildings in Rome that included a basilica, a column commemorating Trajan’s victories, and various other structures.

2. Villa Adriana (Tivoli, Italy): Hadrian’s Villa, located in Tivoli, near Rome, is an extensive complex of palaces, temples, and gardens. The villa showcases Hadrian’s architectural tastes and is regarded as one of the most crucial archaeological sites of the Roman Empire.

3. Temple of Venus and Roma (Rome): While initially commissioned by Emperor Domitian who reigned from 81 to 96 CE, Hadrian oversaw the reconstruction of the iconic Temple of Venus and Roma. It was the largest temple in the ancient city of Rome, dedicated to the goddesses Venus and Roma.

4. Temple of Neptune (Paestum, Italy): Hadrian was involved in the restoration and renovation of the Temple of Neptune in the ancient Greek city of Paestum, located in present-day southern Italy.

5. Hadrian’s Mausoleum (Rome): Commonly known as the Castel Sant’Angelo, this cylindrical mausoleum was initially commissioned by Hadrian as his final resting place. It later served various functions, including as a fortress and a papal residence.

Influence on Roman law

Hadrian had a significant influence on Roman law. As emperor, he initiated legal reforms that aimed to create a unified system of law throughout Rome.

Hadrian’s efforts resulted in the compilation and publication of the “Edictum Perpetuum,” a compilation and systematisation of the praetor’s edicts, which were annual proclamations outlining the principles and guidelines that Roman magistrates would use in administering justice. Hadrian’s contribution was to create a more permanent and standardised version of these edicts, providing a degree of legal certainty, consistency, and fairness in judicial decisions across different territories.

Hadrian is also credited with organising and systematising Roman law into a more cohesive and accessible form, which laid the groundwork for future emperors to continue codification efforts. This eventually led to the compilation of the “Codex Justinianus” in the sixth century, a foundational work in Roman and later Byzantine law.

This emphasis on clarity and accessibility in legal matters contributed to greater understanding and participation among Roman citizens. Hadrian’s influence on Roman law remains an important aspect of his legacy, showcasing his commitment to maintaining order and justice within the empire.

Marriage 

Way before Hadrian became emperor, he married Vibia Sabina in 100 CE. Vibia Sabina came from an aristocratic Roman family, and the marriage was arranged by Hadrian’s predecessor, Emperor Trajan.

Sabina was the great-niece of Trajan, and her marriage to Hadrian was intended to strengthen family ties and alliances within the Roman elite. However, historical accounts suggest that the marriage was not particularly happy, and Hadrian and Sabina had a somewhat tumultuous relationship.

Despite their differences, the marriage endured until Sabina’s death in 136 CE. The couple did not have any children.

Antoninus Pius

Antoninus Pius was a notable statesman during the reign of Hadrian. Coming from a respected and affluent family, Antoninus Pius had a distinguished career in Roman public service and held various political and administrative positions, gradually advancing through the cursus honorum, the sequential order of public offices that was held by aspiring politicians in ancient Rome. He also served as consul in 120 CE.

However, the turning point in Antoninus Pius’s career occurred when Emperor Hadrian, who as we mentioned had no biological heir, adopted him as his successor on 24 February 138 CE. This suggests that Hadrian saw him as a capable and trustworthy successor who would continue his policies and ensure a smooth transition of power.

Death and Succession

Shortly after choosing his heir, on 10 July 138 CE, Emperor Hadrian died. The circumstances surrounding his death are not entirely clear, and historical accounts vary. The cause of his death is often attributed to heart failure or complications from dropsy (edema or fluid retention), although ancient sources provide different theories.

Hadrian’s death marked the end of a significant era in Roman history. Following his death, his adopted son Antoninus Pius succeeded him as emperor. Antoninus Pius, in turn, honoured Hadrian’s legacy and continued many of his policies during his own reign as Roman Emperor from 138 to 161 CE, becoming himself another of the Five Good Emperors.

Conclusion

Emperor Hadrian left an indelible mark on the course of Roman history through his dynamic reign and multifaceted contributions. As we have seen, his reign was characterised by a blend of military caution, administrative reforms, and a profound appreciation for arts and culture. His architectural legacy reflects his commitment to both aesthetic and strategic concerns.

Hadrian’s intellectual pursuits, cultural patronage, and travels throughout the empire underscored his vision of a well-governed and harmonious Roman state. Despite the challenges of managing a vast and diverse empire, Hadrian’s efforts in consolidating territories, codifying Roman law, and promoting administrative efficiency left a lasting impact.

As a key figure in the period of the “Five Good Emperors,” Hadrian’s legacy endures as a symbol of Roman imperial strength, cultural sophistication, and a nuanced approach to governance.